The Book of Daniel stands out as one of the most debated texts in the Old Testament, particularly in relation to its authorship and the accuracy of its historical claims. Traditionally, Daniel was thought to have been written by the prophet Daniel during the 6th century BCE, around the time of the Babylonian exile. However, modern scholarship, supported by historical analysis and archaeological findings, has firmly established that the Book of Daniel was likely composed much later, in the 2nd century BCE, during the period of the Maccabean Revolt. This late composition date raises significant questions about the historical accuracy of the text, particularly in regard to its portrayal of events that were yet to occur at the time it was written.
The Traditional View: Daniel as a 6th Century BCE Prophet
According to traditional interpretations, Daniel was believed to be a prophet who lived during the Babylonian exile, specifically in the 6th century BCE. The narrative of the Book of Daniel presents him as a Jewish captive in Babylon who rises to prominence under King Nebuchadnezzar and later serves under subsequent rulers, such as Belshazzar and Darius the Mede. The book includes both apocalyptic visions and stories that depict Daniel’s unwavering faith in God, such as the famous stories of the fiery furnace and the lion’s den.
In this traditional view, the prophecies in Daniel were seen as a direct prediction of future events, such as the rise and fall of empires (Babylonian, Medo-Persian, Greek, and Roman), culminating in the establishment of God’s eternal kingdom. This view, however, has come under intense scrutiny in recent years.
The Modern Understanding: A 2nd Century BCE Composition
Scholars today widely accept that the Book of Daniel was not written during the Babylonian exile but much later, during the 2nd century BCE, specifically around 167–164 BCE, during the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, a Seleucid king who persecuted the Jewish people. This dating is based on several key pieces of evidence, primarily related to the historical context and the accuracy of the book’s prophetic claims.
1. Historical Inaccuracies
One of the clearest indications that the Book of Daniel was written after the events it describes is the presence of historical inaccuracies. For example, in the book, the Babylonian king Belshazzar is depicted as the ruler of Babylon, but historical records (including the cuneiform tablets and the writings of ancient historians) confirm that Belshazzar was never the king of Babylon. Rather, he was the crown prince, and the actual king at the time was Nabonidus, his father. This discrepancy suggests that the book was written by an author who was not familiar with the precise historical details of Babylonian politics in the 6th century BCE, but who had access to events that occurred much later.
Additionally, the Book of Daniel introduces Darius the Mede, who does not appear in any known historical records. No such ruler is mentioned in Babylonian or Persian sources, raising further doubts about the authenticity of the narrative’s historical accuracy.
2. Prophecies About the Greek Empire
The most compelling evidence for the later dating of Daniel comes from its detailed prophecies, which align closely with events that took place in the 2nd century BCE. In chapters 7–12, Daniel prophesies the rise of four successive empires, culminating in the establishment of God’s kingdom. The fourth empire is commonly interpreted as the Roman Empire, but the third empire—represented as a “male goat”—is widely understood to refer to the Greek Empire under Alexander the Great, and the “little horn” that arises afterward is believed to represent Antiochus IV Epiphanes.
The detailed description of Antiochus IV’s persecution of the Jewish people and his desecration of the Jerusalem temple in the 2nd century BCE strongly suggests that the author of Daniel was writing after these events occurred. For example, Daniel 11:31 describes an abomination of desolation in the temple, which mirrors the historical desecration of the Jewish temple by Antiochus IV in 167 BCE. The book’s vivid depiction of these events makes it clear that the writer was describing events that had already happened, not foretelling the future.
3. Language and Style
Another indicator of the book’s late composition is its use of language. The Book of Daniel contains sections written in both Hebrew and Aramaic, which was common during the period of the Babylonian exile. However, the Aramaic used in Daniel (particularly in chapters 2–7) is more consistent with the form of Aramaic used in the 2nd century BCE, not the 6th century BCE. This linguistic evidence supports the idea that the book was written much later than traditionally believed.
Theological and Apocalyptic Motifs
The theological content of Daniel, especially its apocalyptic visions, also reflects a later context. Apocalyptic literature, characterized by visions of cosmic battles between good and evil, the rise and fall of empires, and the ultimate triumph of God’s kingdom, was a genre that became especially popular in the 2nd century BCE. The Maccabean Revolt, which took place during this time, was a period of intense religious and political upheaval, and many Jewish texts written during this period, including Daniel, reflect a longing for divine intervention and deliverance from oppression. The apocalyptic visions in Daniel, with their focus on the suffering of the Jewish people and the promise of eventual divine justice, are products of this historical context.
Conclusion: A Late Compilation of Prophecy
In light of the historical inaccuracies, the specific details of prophecies that align with the events of the 2nd century BCE, and the linguistic and literary evidence, it is clear that the Book of Daniel was written much later than traditionally believed. Rather than being an authentic record of events from the 6th century BCE, it is a work of prophecy written in the 2nd century BCE, using the literary genre of apocalyptic literature to address the political and religious crises of the time, particularly the persecution of Jews by Antiochus IV Epiphanes.
The Book of Daniel serves as an example of how religious texts can be shaped by the circumstances in which they are written, and how prophecy can be retroactively applied to historical events. Understanding the late composition of Daniel not only enhances our historical understanding of the text but also provides insight into the religious and political climate of the 2nd century BCE, when Jews sought to understand and cope with their suffering through divine promises of justice and restoration.
Sources
- Collins, John J. Daniel: A Commentary on the Book of Daniel. Hermeneia, 1993.
- Cook, Stephen L. The Apocalyptic Literature. Cambridge University Press, 2000.
- Goldingay, John. Daniel. Word Biblical Commentary, 1989.
- Kitchen, Kenneth A. On the Reliability of the Old Testament. Eerdmans, 2003.
- VanderKam, James C. The Dead Sea Scrolls Today. 3rd ed., Eerdmans, 2010.